Sovereignty after Empire
Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union
Notes
Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace (New York: United Nations, 1992), 10.
Serge Schmemann, "Ethnic Battles Veering in Former Soviet Fringe," New York Times, May 24, 1992: 7.
Rodolfo Stavenhagen, Self-determination: Report of the M. Ennals Memorial Symposium in Saskatoon, Canada (London: International Alert, 1993), 2.
Zbigniew Brzezinski, Out of Control: Global Turmoil on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1993).
Daniel P. Moynihan, Pandaemonium: Ethnicity in International Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
See, for example, Iulian Bromlei et al., Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy v SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1975) and Galina Starovoitova, Etnicheskaia gruppa v sovremennom sovetskom gorode (Leningrad: Nauka, 1987).
See the introduction to the Russian edition of Ernest Gellner's Nations and Nationalism (Natsii i natsionalizm) (Moscow: Progress, 1991), 5
Walker Connor, "From Tribe to Nation," History of European Ideas, vol. 13 (New York: Pergamon, 1991).
For more detail, see Robert Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994 ), 3?32.
On the role of social entropy in national processes, see Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), 63?87.
A. Rigo Sureda, The Evolution of the Right of Self- Determination: A Study of United Nations Practice (Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1973), 17.
E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917?1923, vol. 1 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1985), 416?17.
In the examination of case studies and the description of criteria of self-determination in parts 3 and 5, respectively, I generally have in mind the first type of subjects.
It was in fact realized from the revolution of 1917 until 1922, when the creation of a federation began on the basis of a treaty voluntarily signed by the various republics. The Soviet constitution formally included an article on self-determination right up until the fall of the USSR, but only Armenia, in 1991, fulfilled all the demands of the corresponding law on secession.
Sureda, Evolution, 100. For a summary of the four sponsoring governments' and other participants' perspectives in the May 1945 discussion, see pages 97?120.
UN General Assembly Resolution 1514(XV), 14 December 1960.
Sureda, Evolution, 108.
They took effect in the USSR in 1976 and in the United States in 1991.
UN General Assembly Resolution 2200(XXI), 16 December 1966.
Ibid.
UN General Assembly Resolution 2625 (XXV), 24 October 1970.
Participants in this conference (specifically, the U.S. ambassador to the CSCE, John Maresca) explained to the author that the principle of the inviolability of postwar borders in Europe was especially insisted upon by the Soviet delegation, headed by Leonid Brezhnev. The Communists were mostly concerned with the inviolability of the border between East and West Germany and the durability of the Berlin Wall.
See, for example, Iurii Barsegov, Obiazatel'naia sila prava narodov na samoopredelenie (Moscow: Nauka, 1993) and Samoopredelenie i territorial'naia tselostnost' (Moscow: Nauka, 1993).
See, for example, the case study of Georgia in part 3.
On the emergence of Russia as a sovereign state, see John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
President Gamsakhurdia, after spending time in exile in Chechnya under the protection of President Dudaev, returned to Georgia at the end of 1993, where he reportedly committed suicide.
In accordance with Russian citizenship law, any former Soviet citizen, regardless of his or her residence and nationality, can apply for Russian citizenship until February 2000.
The U.S. Congress paid attention to the participation of Azerbaijan and Turkey in the blockade of Armenia during summer 1995. The Freedom Support Act and the foreign aid appropriations bill for that fiscal year include amendments that prohibit Azerbaijan from receiving any humanitarian aid from the United States.
Paul A. Goble, "Coping with the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis," Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 16, no. 2 (1992): 26.
Ambassador Maresca provided the author with a copy of his manuscript on the issue at the United States Institute of Peace in May 1994.
